Principles of Ecotourism

Principles of Ecotourism

Principles of Ecotourism

Ecotourism is about uniting conservation, communities, and sustainable travel. This means that those who implement and participate in ecotourism activities should follow the following ecotourism principles;

·         Minimize impact.

·         Build environmental and cultural awareness and respect

·         Provide positive experiences for both visitors and hosts.

·         Provide direct financial benefits for conservation.

·         Provide financial benefits and empowerment for local people.

·         Raise sensitivity to host countries’ political, environmental, and social climate.

Advantages of Ecotourism

1.       Ecotourism is one of the fastest growing markets in tourism industry.

2.       They help to generate local employment and earn foreign exchange.

3.       Ecotourism helps to bring awareness and conservation measures for ecologically fragile and endangered places.

4.       Attracts government policies and better regulation (than none) and brings funds for conservation.

Criticisms of Ecotourism

Ecotourism

Ecotourism

Ecotourism

Ecotourism is defined as “responsible travel to natural areas that conserves the environment and improves the well –being of local people.” (TIES)

“Environmentally responsible travel to natural areas, in order to enjoy and appreciate nature (and accompanying cultural features, both past and present) that promote conservation, have a low visitor impact and provide for beneficially active socio-economic involvement of local peoples.” (IUCN)

Ecotourism is broadly defined as low impact travel to endangered and often undisturbed locations. It is different from traditional tourism because it allows the traveler to become educated about the areas- both in terms of the physical l

Environmental Management

Environmental Management

It involves two management approaches -

1.       Command and control approach or top down approach – Government controlled, hierarchical order based approach.

2.       Participatory approach – decentralized, with participation of local communities, civil society. NGO along with government e.g. Approach suggested by Western Ghats Expert Ecology Committee.

Ecological Approach

While for a biotic resources such as the minerals approach of ‘sustainable use’ is to be applied. Here the discussion is about biotic resources. Besides flora and fauna, the biotic resources can be categorized as (a) Natural ecological resources i.e. wildlife including both plant and animals and (b) Managed ecological resources such as agricultural crops ,  planted trees, shrubs, etc.

In the management of ecological resources, all the activities should be governed by ecological principles which include aspects of nature as following;

1.       Evolution, dispersal and distribution of plants and animals;

2.       Extinction of species

3.       Biological succession

4.       Biogeochemical cycle –

Ecosystem goods and Services / Ecological Services

Ecosystem goods and Services / Ecological Services

Types of Succession

(1)    Primary succession: The succession process which starts in those base areas where there was no vegetation and animals earlier, is called primary succession. Such sites may be fresh lava flows, volcanic ash plains, newly formed sand dunes of flood plains, etc. it takes a very long period for the development of proper soil and arrival of pioneer vegetation communities. Slowly a vegetation community begins to develop passing through the seral stages such as herb community, scrub community, forest community or preclimax and finally climax community (climatic climax) . The vegetation supporting it is called climax vegetation. In the intervening stages all those rules of evolution such as intra and inter-specific competition, survival of fittest, natural selection, invasion of new plant and animal species, changes brought in by external forces etc work in full force.

(2)    Secondary succession: It refers to development of sequence of vegetation in those areas which had vegetation cover earlier but now have been rendered nude due to destruction of vegetation, either partly or completely, through either natural or manmade process e.g. Development of new forest on an abandoned land after shifting cultivation or jhum.

Ecological Niche

Ecological Niche

Ecological Niche

Ecological niche refers to the functional role and position of a species in relation to other species in the given ecosystem. In a natural ecosystem, several species of plant and animal communities perform different roles in getting food and thus each community is confined to certain locality having certain functions. Such locality having ideal environmental conditions for the survival of a species is called niche. The species of a given niche may not service in other niches. The ecosystem stability depends upon diversity of a niche. Greater the niche diversity, greater the stability of ecosystem. The ecosystem becomes unstable if one or more species are eliminated because then niche becomes empty and other species which were dependent on the eliminated species food now become vulnerable to elimination.

Biotic Succession / Ecological Succession

Ecosystem instability

Ecosystem instability

Ecosystem instability refers to that state when an ecosystem is unable to adjust with environmental changes. The happens when the changes are continuous and enormous and these changes exceed the resilience or capacity of the ecosystem. The factors responsible for ecosystem stability or instability are always viewed in terms of ecosystem resilience. If the environmental changes exceed the ecosystem resilience, ecosystem instability is caused but when ecosystem is such that it can withstand environmental changes, ecosystem stability is maintained.

The ecosystem instability can occur due to natural factors such as massive volcanic eruption or climatic changes like ice age. Ecosystem instability is also induced due to manmade activities. For example,

(1)   Destruction of Himalayan ecosystem due to deforestation, overgrazing etc. leading to increased weathering and erosion of soil.

(2)   Replacement of natural vegetation and animal species by cultivation or urban land use.

(3)   Introduction of exotic plant species such as water hyacinth.

(4)   Changing the proportion of atmospheric gases, etc.

Ecological Stability

Ecological Stability

Ecological Stability

Ecosystem or ecological stability refers to capability of a natural ecosystem to apply self-regulating mechanisms so as to return to a steady state after an outside disturbance. Ecosystem stability meant there is a balance between production and consumption of each element in the ecosystem. The number of each species in a mature ecosystem generally remains constant.

The self regulatory mechanisms are also called homeostatic mechanisms .These are mainly negative and positive feedback mechanisms. For example. If the population of insects in a small ecosystem area increases greatly due to favorable climate, then food supply falls short of demand due to increased competition. Eventually some insects’ die of starvation and slowly the ecosystem returns to its original size.

UN Convention to Combat Desertification (UNCCD)

UN Convention to Combat Desertification (UNCCD)

Desertification along with climate change and loss of biodiversity were identified as the greatest challenges to sustainable development during 1992 Rio Earth Summit. Established in 1994, UNCCD is the sole legally binding international agreement linking environment and development to sustainable land management. The convention addresses specifically the arid, semiarid and by sub-humid areas known as the drylands where, some of the most vulnerable ecosystems and people can be found.

In the 10-year strategy of the UNCCD (2008 -2018) that was adopted in 2007, following goal was adopted: “To forge a global partnership to reverse and prevent desertification/ land degradation and to mitigate the effects of drought in affected areas in order to support poverty reduction and environmental sustainability.” 

The main focus region of Conventions is Africa alongside other dry land regions in the world such as in India. The UNCCD collaborates with UNFCC and CBD. The convention is implemented through Action Progrmmes at National Sub-regional and Regional levels.

At present, every year 12 million ha of land becomes unproductive through desertification and drought. In the same period, 75 billion tons of soils are lost forever. Globally 1.5 billion people are directly affected by land degradation. The 12 million ha land lost every year have the potential produce 20 million tons of food grains.

Biome

Biome

The natural ecosystems on global scale having almost similar biotic and a biotic conditions are called as biome. A Biome is a major ecological region of distinctive plant and animal group well adapted to the physical environment of its distribution area. The studies of biomes include study of global distribution Patten of climate, soil, plants and animals as well as their special adaptations to the regional climate.  

Vegetation is the most dominant component of biomes due to their enormous biomass. Vegetation and climate in turn are inter-related and world is divided into different biomes on the basis of major world climates, as following:

1.       Terrestrial Biome

(a)    Tundra Biome

(b)   Temperate Biome – Taiga Forest; Temperate Deciduous Forest; Temperate Grassland ; and Mediterranean

(c)    Tropical Biome - Desert; Tropical savanna ; and Tropical Forest

2.       Freshwater Biome

3.       Marine Biome

We will study Monsoon Biome which is actually included in Deciduous Forest Biome under Tropical Biome.

Monsoon Forest Biome

Monsoon forest biome is included in deciduous forest biome under Tropical Biome.

Strategic plan for Biodiversity 2011-2020 / Aichi Biodiversity Targets

Strategic plan for Biodiversity 2011-2020, including Aichi Biodiversity Targets

Aichi Biodiversity Targets

The tenth meeting of the Conference of the Parties, held in October 2010, in Nagoya, Aichi Prefecture, Japan, adopted a revised and updated Strategic Plan for Biodiversity, including the Aichi Biodiversity Targets for the 2011-2020 periods. This new plan will be the overacting framework on Biodiversity, not only for the biodiversity –related conventions, but for the entire United Nations system.

Aichi Biodiversity Targets: Fewer than five broad strategic goals 20 targets have been decided.

·         Strategic Goal A: Address the underlying causes of biodiversity loss by mainstreaming biodiversity across government and society.

·         Strategic Goal B: Reduce the direct pressures on Biodiversity and promote sustainable use.

·         Strategic Goal C: To improve the status of biodiversity by safeguarding ecosystems, species and genetic diversity.

·         Strategic Goal D: Enhance the benefits to all from biodiversity and ecosystem services.

·         Strategic Goal E: Enhance implementation through participatory planning knowledge management and capacity building.

Some examples of the Aichi Biodiversity Targets are:

Nagoya Protocol / Cartagena Protocol

Nagoya Protocol

The Nagoya  Protocol on Access to Genetic Resources and the Fair and Equitable Sharing of Benefits Arising from their Utilization to the Convention on Biological Diversity is an international agreement which aims at sharing the benefits arising from the utilization of genetic resources in a fair and equitable way, including by appropriate access to genetic resources and by appropriate transfer of relevant technologies, taking into account all rights over those resources and to technologies, and by appropriate funding, thereby contributing to the conservation of biological diversity and the sustainable use of its components. It was adapted by the Conference of the parties to the Convention biological Diversity at its tenth meeting in 2010 in Nagoya, Japan. The Nagoya Protocol will enter into force 90 days after the date of deposit of the fiftieth instrument of ratification. The fair and equitable sharing of the benefits arising out of the utilization of genetic resources is one of the three objectives of the convention on Biological Diversity.

Cartagena Protocol

 The Cartagena protocol to the Convention on Biological Diversity is an international treaty governing the movements of living modified organisms (LMOs) resulting from modern biotechnology from one country to another. It was adopted as a supplementary agreement to the Convention on Biological Diversity and entered into force in 2003.

Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD

1.       Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD):

The Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) is an international legally-binding treaty with three main goals: conservation of biodiversity; sustainable use of biodiversity; and the fair and equitable sharing of the benefits arising from the use of genetic resources. Its overall objective is to encourage actions which will lead to a sustainable future.

The conservation of Biodiversity is a common concern of humankind. The CBD covers biodiversity at all levels: Ecosystems, species and genetic resources. It also covers biotechnology through the Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety. In fact, it covers all possible domains that are directly or indirectly related to biodiversity and its role in development, ranging from science, politics and education to agriculture, business, culture and much more. The governing body of the CBD is the Conference of the Parties (COP). This ultimate authority of all governments (or parties) that have ratified the treaty meets every two year to review progress, set priorities and commit to work plans.

In 2010. Parties to the CBD adopted the Strategic Plan for Biodiversity 2011- 2020, a ten-year framework for action by all countries and stakeholders to safeguard biodiversity and the benefits it provides to people.

The secretariat of the Convention on Biological Diversity (SCBD) is based in Montreal, Canada. Its main function is to assist Governments In the implementation of the CBD and its programmes of work, to organize meetings, draft documents, and coordinate with other international organizations and collect and spread information. The Executive Secretary is the head of the Secretariat.

Fast facts:

International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN)

International Efforts

1.       International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) – Red List of Threatened Species: IUCN publishes the list of species of plants and animals which hare threatened for their survival and are facing extinction from time to time. It contains following categories:

(a)    Extinct species

(b)   Extinct in Wild species

(c)    Critically Endangered species

(d)   Endangered species

(e)   Vulnerable species

(f)     Near Threatened species

(g)    Least concern species

Few important Categories:

(1)    Endangered species- those in immediate danger of extermination i.e. extinction.

(2)    Critically endangered species- will not survive without direct human intervention and protection.

(3)    Threatened species- so called because of decline in numbers.

(4)    Rare species- not presently in danger but are subject to risk.

Carbon Cycle

Carbon Cycle

Carbon Cycle

The carbon circulates within biosphere in two cycles. In gaseous cycle it is present as free gas in the form of carbon dioxide (CO₂) and as a gas dissolved in the waters of sea and land (HCO₃⁻). In non-gaseous or solid cycle, it is present as biomass (carbohydrates i.e. - CH₂O compounds) in living/dead matter and as hydrocarbon compounds (petroleum, coal, natural gas) and as mineral carbonates in carbonate rocks (limestone, corals, i.e. - CaCO₃ compounds).

This carbon enters the biotic world through the action of autotrophy by the process of photosynthesis. The carbon then again returns back to the atmosphere and water by (I) respiration (CO₂); (ii) decay (producing CO₂ if oxygen is present methane (cH₄ if it is not).

Biogeochemical Cycles

Biogeochemical Cycles

Biogeochemical Cycles

One of the important manifestations of disturbances in the biogeochemical cycles is climatic extremes, recovery of ecosystems after extreme events or the climate change induced global warming itself. This gives the idea of importance of biogeochemical cycles. The circulation of matter (nutrients) in the biospheric ecosystem is accomplished in a series of cyclic pathways which are collectively known as biogeochemical cycle. A biogeochemical cycle is the cycling of chemical elements through the earth’s atmosphere, oceans and sediments as it is affected by the geological and biological cycles. It can be described as a series of compartments of storage reservoirs and pathways between these reservoirs. Biogeochemical cycles can be studied as cycles of individual elements such as carbon cycle. Hydrogen or water cycle, nitrogen cycle etc. Or broadly as Hydrological cycle, mineral cycle, etc.

Ecological Pyramid

Ecological Pyramid

Ecological Pyramid

This concept is often associated with description of food chains and food web. An ecological pyramid is an illustration of the reduction in energy as we move through each feeding (tropic) level in the ecosystem. The base of the pyramid is large since ecosystem’s energy factories (the plant producers) are converting solar energy into chemical energy through photosynthesis. A food chain can also depict a reduction in energy at each tropic level if the arrow drawn at different levels; continue to be reduced in size.

Ecological pyramid can be represented in three ways:

(1)   Pyramid of numbers: it can be generated by counting all the organisms at different feeding levels. This is a difficult task as we are not just identifying each species in the ecosystem but also counting how many of each species are present. Sometimes this may not work. For example, one tree (a producer) can represent an ecosystem and harbor numerous populations of herbivores and carnivores. Thus, the bottom of pyramid would be very small and not broad.

Food Chain and Food web

Food Chain and Food web

The formation and transfer of food energy in the ecosystem takes place from one level to the next in a hierarchical manner. The levels through which food energy passes from one group of organisms to the other group are called tropic levels.

The chain of transformation and transfer, of food energy in the ecosystem from one group of organism to the other group through a series of steps or levels (trophic levels) is called food chain.

In other words, the chain of transfer of food energy form one group of organisms to the other group in the biosphere (ecosystem) is called food chain and the point where food energy is transferred from one group of organisms to the other group is called trophic level.

On an average there are four trophic levels but they can vary from 2,3 to even 5, 6 etc depending on the length of food chain or size and scale of ecosystem we take into account.

Trophic Level- 1: This is the base of food chain where autotrophic primary producers like green plants produce food from nutrients, CO₂ and water by the process of photosynthesis. Sunlight is the primary source of energy entering the ecosystem.

Functioning of an Ecosystem

Functioning of an Ecosystem

An ecosystem is driven by the flow of energy and circulation of matter by biogeochemical cycle between the biosphere, lithosphere, hydrosphere and atmosphere. The solar radiation is the basic input of energy entering the ecosystem. In the living organisms or biosphere, the energy (chemical energy) and matter (food), collectively called as food energy, are transferred via food chain and food web through various trophic levels. Thus all the elements of an ecosystem are interdependent and integrated. An ecosystem itself is integrated with other ecosystems and thus they all become interdependent. In fact every ecosystem is part of the larger ecosystem, until the larger ecosystem of the earth-the biosphere – is formed. That is why we see climatic changes happening in one ecosystem affecting the other ecosystems.

Productivity of Ecosystem

Only a small fraction of sunlight striking the earth is concerted to chemical energy by primary producers. The rate of conversion of solar energy into chemical energy (organic matter) by autotrophs is called productivity of ecosystem. The productivity of ecosystem depends to two things:-

(i)                  The availability of solar radiation to autotrophic primary producers. The productivity of ecosystems goes in decreasing from equator to poles as the amount of solar energy received goes on decreasing from equator to poles. Therefore, plants in tropical areas will have higher productivity than plants in temperate or tundra region.

(ii)                The efficiency of plants to concert solar energy into food or chemical energy which is also called as primary production. It is measured in two ways:

(a)    Gross primary productivity which is total amount of chemical energy assimilated by the autotrophs from solar energy.

(b)   Net Primary Productivity is equal to Gross Primary Productivity minus the energy lost through respiration.

Ecosystem Ecology

Ecosystem Ecology emphasizes the movement of energy and nutrients among the biotic and abiotic components of ecosystems. It examines physical and biological structures and how these characteristics interact with each other. A major focus of ecosystem ecology is on functional processes, ecological mechanisms that maintain the structure and services produced by ecosystems. These include production of biomass, decomposition and tropic interactions. In short ecosystem ecology studies the interdependent functional processes behind food chain and food web and how all the applied to cases such as increased effects of atmospheric co₂ on coral reefs and fishes or to understand the effects of increased pesticides application on the pests and birds preying on them.

Ecosystems

Having done with basic concepts we will return to the ecosystems. As said earlier, ecosystem is a fundamental functional unit characterized by total assemblage of biotic community and abiotic components and their mutual interactions in a given space time unit.

Ecosystems can be classified as following:

(i)                 On the basis of habitats:

(a)   Terrestrial – Upland or mountain; Lowland; Warm Desert and Cold Desert.

(b)   Aquatic – Fresh Water; Marine.

(ii)               On the basis of human intervention:

(a)   Natural ecosystems e.g. tall grass or Amazon rainforest ecosystem.

(b)   Artificial or cultivated ecosystems e.g. rice field ecosystem.

Components of the Ecosystem

Biosphere

Biosphere

Having defend ecology and ecosystem, the next thing is biosphere. In simple words, biosphere is the largest i.e. earth. Alternatively it is the global sum of all ecosystems on the earth. Biosphere is that part of the earth which contains living organisms- the biologically inhabited soil, air and water. So, biosphere is the global ecological system integrating all living beings and their relationships, including their interaction with the elements of lithosphere, hydrosphere and atmosphere. Biosphere becomes the largest ecosystem because it (the biospheric ecosystem) consists of biotic component (plants, animals, man, and micro-organisms), abiotic component (land, air and water) and energy component (solar and geothermal energy) and these are on the scale of earth.

The components are inter-related through a series of large cyclic mechanisms, collectively called as biogeochemical cycle. In biospheric ecosystem there is a continuous exchange of energy and matter. While the circulation of energy is unidirectional, the materials are circulated cyclically called as biogeochemical cycle.

Ecology

Ecology

Ecology is the science which studies the inter-relationships between biotic and a biotic components of a natural ecosystem on one hand among biotic components on the other. Thus ecology is the study of interrelationships and various processes between all organisms and their environment as well as among the organisms themselves.   

Ernst Haeckel coined the term ‘Oekology’ (Greek: oikos – house or dwelling as habitat, logos—study of). The concept of ecology evolved from Darwin’s concept of evolution of species through natural selection involving interaction between biological species and habitat.

Ecology is studied into two branches. First, autecology is the study of ecological relationship of single species in a given ecosystem. Second, synecology is the study of group of species living together as communities in relation to their habitats of a given ecosystem. It can be mentioned here that a group of individual organisms of the same species in a given area is called a population. While a group of population of different species in a given area is called a community. Based on this we have population ecology and community ecology.

The basic concepts and the focus areas of ecology are as follows:

(1)   Ecosystem as the fundamental unit of ecological study.

Ecosystem

ECOSYSTEM & ECOLOGY

Ecosystem

An ecosystem is a fundamental functional unit of ecological study. An ecosystem is a system – ecological system – in which organisms interact with each other and with their environment in a given and unit-time. In other words an ecosystem is a biotic community together with its physical environment considered as an integrated unit. Implied within this definition is the concept of a structural and functional unit, unified through life processes.

An ecosystem is broadly composed of two components:

(1)   Biome – All the plants, animal and microorganisms, in fact all the living beings in a given spatial unit. These are biotic elements.

(2)   Habitat – The Physical environment i.e. a biotic elements such as air, water and land.

Both these components are integrated by the continuous flow of energy and matter between them. We can call Energy as the third component of the ecosystem.

In other words each organism (including humans) is affected by and interacts with its environment. That environment is formed from a combination of interactive nonliving and living elements. When we consider both forms of elements and their interactions as a single entity we have an ecosystem at same level of organization.

Oxygen Cycle

Oxygen Cycle

Oxygen Cycle

Similarly in the oxygen cycle the imbalances are likely to emerge due to industrial combustion since 1860’s industrial revolution and decreasing vegetation cover.

Hydrogen or Hydrological Cycle

It is also called hydrological cycle or water cycle as most of the hydrogen circulates in the biosphere in the form of H₂O- moisture or water. Hydrological cycle at global scale involves following sequential processes as Evaporation →Condensation → Precipitation (rainfall, snowfall) → Percolation into the ground and surface runoff, both eventually transferring to water bodies and oceans →Evaporation again.

Water is an important substance in the biosphere because

(i)                 It is able to dissolve almost all substances;